By default, if the slice number is omitted, GRUB searches the first slice which has the a partition. This cannot be accomplished with the standard boot manager without rewriting it. There are a number of other boot managers in the sysutils category of the Ports Collection.
This will provide long filename support, improvement in performance, and stability. If the drive will be used by other operating systems, a more portable choice, such as msdosfs, is better. The type of device to mount must be specified. This generally means that there is no CD in the drive, or the drive is not visible on the bus.
The CD probably uses the "Joliet" extension for storing information about files and directories. This is because mount only works on file systems. Audio CDs do not have file systems; they just have data. By default, mount 8 will attempt to mount the last data track session of a CD. To load an earlier session, use the -s command line argument. To make this persist across reboots, add the line vfs. Users can only mount devices they have read permissions to.
Enabling vfs. This is due to how these commands actually work. They seem to be the same thing, but a file without a directory entry will affect df but not du. When a program is using a file, and the file is deleted, the file is not really removed from the file system until the program stops using it. The file is immediately deleted from the directory listing, however. As an example, consider a file large enough to affect the output of du and df. A file being viewed with more can be deleted without causing an error.
The entry is removed from the directory so no other program or user can access it. However, du shows that it is gone as it has walked the directory tree and the file is not listed.
Once the more session ends, du and df will agree. This situation is common on web servers. Many people set up a FreeBSD web server and forget to rotate the log files. The new administrator deletes the file, but the system still complains that the partition is full. Stopping and restarting the web server program would free the file, allowing the system to release the disk space.
To prevent this from happening, set up newsyslog 8. Note that Soft Updates can delay the freeing of disk space and it can take up to 30 seconds for the change to be visible. This section of the Handbook describes how to do this. Disk manufacturers calculate gigabytes as a billion bytes each, whereas FreeBSD calculates them as 1,,, bytes each. For more details, look up -m in tunefs 8. Normally writes are bundled up into transaction groups and written to disk when filled "Transaction Group Commit".
However syscalls like fsync 2 require a commitment that the data is written to stable storage before returning. The ZIL is needed for writes that have been acknowledged as written but which are not yet on disk as part of a transaction.
The transaction groups are timestamped. In the event of a crash the last valid timestamp is found and missing data is merged in from the ZIL. If an application has a heavy write load, storing the ZIL in a separate device that has very fast synchronous, sequential write performance can improve overall system performance.
For other workloads, a SSD is unlikely to make much of an improvement. This cache is not persistent across reboots. Deduplication takes up a significant amount of RAM and may slow down read and write disk access times. Unless one is storing data that is very heavily duplicated, such as virtual machine images or user backups, it is possible that deduplication will do more harm than good.
Another consideration is the inability to revert deduplication status. If data is written when deduplication is enabled, disabling dedup will not cause those blocks which were deduplicated to be replicated until they are next modified.
Deduplication can also lead to some unexpected situations. In particular, deleting files may become much slower. ZFS requires space on the disk to write transaction metadata. To restore the pool to a usable state, truncate the file to delete:. File truncation works because a new transaction is not started, new spare blocks are created instead. On systems with additional ZFS dataset tuning, such as deduplication, the space may not be immediately available.
Please see geli 8 and the -T switch. Do not edit this file! For example, to start sshd 8 , the included OpenSSH daemon:.
These shell scripts should be set executable, the default file mode is Use the adduser 8 command, or the pw 8 command for more complicated situations. To remove the user, use the rmuser 8 command or, if necessary, pw 8. This is normally caused by editing the system crontab. This is not the correct way to do things as the system crontab has a different format to the per-user crontabs.
The system crontab has an extra field, specifying which user to run the command as. Since no such command exists, this error message is displayed. This is a security feature. In order to su to root , or any other account with superuser privileges, the user account must be a member of the wheel group.
If this feature were not there, anybody with an account on a system who also found out root 's password would be able to gain superuser level access to the system.
To allow someone to su to root , put them in the wheel group using pw :. Restart the system using boot -s at the loader prompt to enter single-user mode. You may also need to run mount -a -t ufs to mount the file system where your favorite editor is defined. If that editor is on a network file system, either configure the network manually before mounting the network file systems, or use an editor which resides on a local file system, such as ed 1.
The error message displayed immediately after the kernel boot messages should indicate the number of the line in the file which is at fault. See the Handbook entry on printing for troubleshooting tips. Refer to the Handbook section on using localization , specifically the section on console setup.
It is possible that the kernel is not configured to use quotas. In this case, add the following line to the kernel configuration file and recompile the kernel:.
Refer to the Handbook entry on quotas for full details. With a custom kernel, support may be loaded with the sysvshm.
Search the mailing lists for discussions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the available MTAs. Do not panic! Restart the system, type boot -s at the Boot: prompt to enter single-user mode. At the question about the shell to use, hit Enter which will display a prompt. Run passwd root to change the root password then run exit 1 to continue booting. In this case, it will be required to boot from a FreeBSD installation disk, choose the Live CD or Shell at the beginning of the install process and issue the commands mentioned above.
Mount the specific partition in this case and then chroot to it. If the root partition cannot be mounted from single-user mode, it is possible that the partitions are encrypted and it is impossible to mount them without the access keys. When using vt 4 , the default console driver, this can be done by setting the following sysctl 8 :.
Use this perl 1 command:. The modification is done in-place, with the original file stored with a. Alternatively, use tr 1 :. This can be quite a bit faster than using perl. Consult its documentation about the details. Short answer: it is just a name. RC stands for "Release Candidate". It signifies that a release is imminent. Long answer: FreeBSD derives its releases from one of two places. Major, dot-zero, releases, such as 9.
Minor releases, such as 6. Starting with 4. When a release is about to be made, the branch from which it will be derived from has to undergo a certain process. Part of this process is a code freeze.
When a code freeze is initiated, the name of the branch is changed to reflect that it is about to become a release. For example, if the branch used to be called 6. Bug fixes can still be committed to be part of the release. When the source code is in shape for the release the name will be changed to 6. Once in the RC stage, only the most critical bugs found can be fixed.
Once the release 6. For more information on version numbers and the various Subversion branches, refer to the Release Engineering article. Short answer: the security level is greater than 0. Reboot directly to single-user mode to install the kernel. Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing system flags at security levels greater than 0.
To check the current security level:. Short answer: the system is at a security level greater than 1. Reboot directly to single-user mode to change the date. Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing the time by more that one second at security levels greater than 1. To check the security level:. The security level cannot be lowered in multi-user mode.
No, there is no memory leak, and it is not using MB of memory. For convenience, rpc. There is nothing terribly wrong with this from a technical standpoint; it just throws off things like top 1 and ps 1. This is very evident from the source code, where one can see that the length argument to mmap 2 is 0x , or one sixteenth of the address space on an IA32, or exactly MB. The system is running at securelevel greater than 0.
Lower the securelevel and try again. For more information, see the FAQ entry on securelevel and the init 8 manual page. This kernel thread sits mostly idle, and only activates when there is a huge amount of RAM and users are accessing tens of thousands of tiny files. Laundry : pages recently statistically unused but known to be dirty, that is, whose contents needs to be paged out before they can be reused.
Wired : pages that are fixed into memory, usually for kernel purposes, but also sometimes for special use in processes. Pages are most often written to disk sort of a VM sync when they are in the laundry state, but active or inactive pages can also be synced.
This depends upon the CPU tracking of the modified bit being available, and in certain situations there can be an advantage for a block of VM pages to be synced, regardless of the queue they belong to.
In most common cases, it is best to think of the laundry queue as a queue of relatively unused pages that might or might not be in the process of being written to disk. The inactive queue contains a mix of clean and dirty pages; clean pages near the head of the queue are reclaimed immediately to alleviate a free page shortage, and dirty pages are moved to the laundry queue for deferred processing.
There are some other flags e. There are a couple of kinds of "free memory". The most common is the amount of memory immediately available without reclaiming memory already in use. That is the size of the free pages queue plus some other reserved pages. This amount is exported by the vm.
Another kind of "free memory" is the total amount of virtual memory available to userland processes, which depends on the sum of swap space and usable memory. Other kinds of "free memory" descriptions are also possible, but it is relatively useless to define these, but rather it is important to make sure that the paging rate is kept low, and to avoid running out of swap space.
This directory should not be deleted. To see what newsyslog 8 will do, use the following:. Use tzsetup 8. The X. Org Foundation administers the X protocol standards , with the current reference implementation, version 11 release 7.
Many implementations are available for different architectures and operating systems. An implementation of the server-side code is properly known as an X server. The system is probably running at a raised securelevel. It is not possible to start X at a raised securelevel because X requires write access to io 4. For more information, see at the init 8 manual page. There are two solutions to the problem: set the securelevel back down to zero or run xdm 1 or an alternative display manager at boot time before the securelevel is raised.
When using vt 4 , the default console driver, FreeBSD can be configured to support a mouse pointer on each virtual screen. All mouse events received from the real mouse device are written to the sysmouse 4 device via moused 8. To use the mouse on one or more virtual consoles, and use X, see Is it possible to use a mouse outside the X Window system? Starting with Xorg version 7. To restore the old behavior, add the following line to the ServerLayout or ServerFlags section:.
This link can be created by restarting devfs 5 with the following command as root :. Yes, if X is configured for a 5 button mouse. Virtual consoles provide several simultaneous sessions on the same machine without doing anything complicated like setting up a network or running X. When the system starts, it will display a login prompt on the monitor after displaying all the boot messages. Type in your login name and password to start working on the first virtual console. To start another session, perhaps to look at documentation for a program or to read mail while waiting for an FTP transfer to finish, hold down Alt and press F2.
This will display the login prompt for the second virtual console. The default FreeBSD installation has eight virtual consoles enabled. The more virtual terminals, the more resources that are used. Consider changing secure to insecure. In order to run an X server, at least one virtual terminal must be left to off for it to use. This means that only eleven of the Alt-function keys can be used as virtual consoles so that one is left for the X server.
For example, to run X and eleven virtual consoles, the setting for virtual terminal 12 should be:. To return to the X session, switch to the virtual console running X. If X was started from the command line using startx , the X session will attach to the next unused virtual console, not the text console from which it was invoked.
There are two schools of thought on how to start xdm 1. Both are equally valid, and one may work in situations where the other does not.
In both cases the result is the same: X will pop up a graphical login prompt. The ttys 5 method has the advantage of documenting which vty X will start on and passing the responsibility of restarting the X server on logout to init 8. The rc 8 method makes it easy to kill xdm if there is a problem starting the X server.
This is because of the way console permissions are set by default. On a multi-user system, one does not necessarily want just any user to be able to write on the system console. For users who are logging directly onto a machine with a VTY, the fbtab 5 file exists to solve such problems. The mouse and the mouse driver may have become out of synchronization.
In rare cases, the driver may also erroneously report synchronization errors:. This can be easiest achieved by adding hint.
Use xmodmap 1 to define which functions the keys should perform. Assuming all Windows keyboards are standard, the keycodes for these three keys are the following:.
For example, to map the 3 keys to be F13 , F14 , and F15 , respectively. This would make it easy to map them to useful functions within applications or the window manager. The availability of 3D acceleration depends on the version of Xorg and the type of video chip. For an nVidia chip, use the binary drivers provided for FreeBSD by installing one of the following ports:.
For full details, see the Handbook entry on diskless booting. Refer to the Handbook entry on advanced networking , specifically the section on routing and gateways. To use NAT over some other sort of network connection, look at the natd section of the Handbook. If the alias is on the same subnet as an address already configured on the interface, add netmask 0xffffffff to this command:. If the firewall is unintentionally misconfigured, restore network operability by typing the following as root :.
For further information on configuring this firewall, see the Handbook chapter. Possibly because network address translation NAT is needed instead of just forwarding packets. A "fwd" rule only forwards packets, it does not actually change the data inside the packet. Consider this rule:. When a packet with a destination address of foo arrives at the machine with this rule, the packet is forwarded to The destination address of the packet is not changed to Most machines would probably drop a packet that they receive with a destination address that is not their own.
Therefore, using a "fwd" rule does not often work the way the user expects. This behavior is a feature and not a bug. See the FAQ about redirecting services , the natd 8 manual, or one of the several port redirecting utilities in the Ports Collection for a correct way to do this. There are three bandwidth management tools available for FreeBSD.
Bandwidth Manager from Emerging Technologies is a commercial product. The running application requires the Berkeley Packet Filter bpf 4 , but it was removed from a custom kernel. Add this to the kernel config file and build a new kernel:. It includes a set of kernel modifications and a set of userland programs. Among others, these are the kinds of activities which may cause these messages:.
Brute-force denial of service DoS attacks as opposed to single-packet attacks which exploit a specific vulnerability. Port scans which attempt to connect to a large number of ports as opposed to only trying a few well-known ports. The first number in the message indicates how many packets the kernel would have sent if the limit was not in place, and the second indicates the limit.
This limit is controlled using net. This example sets the limit to packets per second:. To disable these messages without disabling response limiting, use net. Finally, to disable response limiting completely, set net. Disabling response limiting is discouraged for the reasons listed above. This is probably caused by someone experimenting with an Ethernet card somewhere else on the network.
This is most commonly seen on cable modem networks. It is harmless, and should not affect the performance of the FreeBSD system. A packet is coming from outside the network unexpectedly. To disable them, set net. A process which is placed inside a set of virtual walls that are designed to prevent someone who breaks into the process from being able to break into the wider system.
The process is only able to run inside the walls. Since nothing the process does in regards to executing code is supposed to be able to breach the walls, a detailed audit of its code is not needed in order to be able to say certain things about its security. The walls might be a user ID, for example. This is the definition used in the security 7 and named 8 man pages. Take the ntalk service, for example see inetd 8.
This service used to run as user ID root. Now it runs as user ID tty. The tty user is a sandbox designed to make it more difficult for someone who has successfully hacked into the system via ntalk from being able to hack beyond that user ID. A process which is placed inside a simulation of the machine. It means that someone who is able to break into the process may believe that he can break into the wider machine but is, in fact, only breaking into a simulation of that machine and not modifying any real data.
Another common use is to mount an underlying file system read-only and then create a file system layer on top of it that gives a process a seemingly writeable view into that file system. The process may believe it is able to write to those files, but only the process sees the effects - other processes in the system do not, necessarily. An attempt is made to make this sort of sandbox so transparent that the user or hacker does not realize that he is sitting in it. One is at the process level, and one is at the userid level.
One process cannot modify the address space of another. If the user ID is not the root user, it serves to firewall the process off from processes owned by other users. The user ID is also used to firewall off on-disk data. When the securelevel is positive, the kernel restricts certain tasks; not even the superuser root is allowed to do them. The securelevel mechanism limits the ability to:.
FreeBSD offers two primary methods of downloading applications and system tools: packages and ports. Users will have to choose between the two collections when installing these tools. Packages are pre-compiled binary packages, typically smaller in size than full port installations and they do not require compilation time.
Ports are a much more customizable option, allowing experienced users to adjust how the tool is compiled. Packages are created for less experienced users and should be used unless the user has specific changes they need to make. In general, ports should only be used if the user understands how the packages are compiled and would like to customize this process.
Skip this section if planning to use packages to install the Desktop Environment in later steps, this is a long tedious process and you may never use it. When using fetch , the extract or the update operation may be run consecutively, like so:. Before installing a desktop environment, a graphical user interface GUI is needed.
While FreeBSD is popular as a server for its performance and stability, it is also suited for day-to-day use as a desktop. With over applications available as FreeBSD packages or ports, it is easy to build a customized desktop that runs a wide variety of desktop applications.
This chapter demonstrates how to install numerous desktop applications, including web browsers, productivity software, document viewers, and financial software. Install additional software using packages or ports as described in Installing Applications: Packages and Ports.
For information on how to configure a multimedia environment, refer to Multimedia. FreeBSD does not come with a pre-installed web browser. Instead, the www category of the Ports Collection contains many browsers which can be installed as a package or compiled from the Ports Collection. This section demonstrates how to install the following popular web browsers and indicates if the application is resource-heavy, takes time to compile from ports, or has any major dependencies.
Firefox is an open source browser that features a standards-compliant HTML display engine, tabbed browsing, popup blocking, extensions, improved security, and more.
Firefox is based on the Mozilla codebase. The Ports Collection can instead be used to compile the desired version of Firefox from source code. Konqueror is more than a web browser as it is also a file manager and a multimedia viewer. WebKit is a rendering engine used by many modern browsers including Chromium.
Chromium is an open source browser project that aims to build a safer, faster, and more stable web browsing experience. Chromium features tabbed browsing, popup blocking, extensions, and much more. Chromium is the open source project upon which the Google Chrome web browser is based. When it comes to productivity, users often look for an office suite or an easy-to-use word processor. While some desktop environments like KDE provide an office suite, there is no default productivity package.
Several office suites and graphical word processors are available for FreeBSD, regardless of the installed window manager. This section demonstrates how to install the following popular productivity software and indicates if the application is resource-heavy, takes time to compile from ports, or has any major dependencies.
Calligra includes standard components that can be found in other office suites. Words is the word processor, Sheets is the spreadsheet program, Stage manages slide presentations, and Karbon is used to draw graphical documents. To install the package:. Leave the media inserted and try restarting the computer. The BIOS changes were incorrect or not saved. Double-check that the right boot device is selected as the first boot device.
This system is too old to support booting from the chosen media. On most machines, holding C on the keyboard during boot will boot from the CD. Once the system boots from the installation media, a menu similar to the following will be displayed:.
To pause the boot timer in order to review the selections, press Space. To select an option, press its highlighted number, character, or key. The following options are available. If the boot timer has been paused, press 1 , upper- or lower-case B , or Enter. Press 2 or the upper- or lower-case S to enter this mode.
Escape to loader prompt : This will boot the system into a repair prompt that contains a limited number of low-level commands. Press 3 or Esc to boot into this prompt. The boot options menu is divided into two sections. The first section can be used to either return to the main boot menu or to reset any toggled options back to their defaults.
The system will always boot using the settings for these options until they are modified. Several options can be toggled using this menu:. Once the problem is fixed, set it back to Off. Verbose : Toggle this option to On to see more detailed messages during the boot process. This can be useful when troubleshooting a piece of hardware.
After making the needed selections, press 1 or Backspace to return to the main boot menu, then press Enter to continue booting into FreeBSD. A series of boot messages will appear as FreeBSD carries out its hardware device probes and loads the installation program. Once the boot is complete, the welcome menu shown in Welcome Menu will be displayed. Press Enter to select the default of Install to enter the installer.
The rest of this chapter describes how to use this installer. Otherwise, use the right or left arrows or the colorized letter to select the desired menu item. The Shell can be used to access a FreeBSD shell in order to use command line utilities to prepare the disks before installation. The live version is described in Using the Live CD. To review the boot messages, including the hardware device probe, press the upper- or lower-case S and then Enter to access a shell.
When finished, type exit to return to the welcome menu. This section shows the order of the bsdinstall menus and the type of information that will be asked before the system is installed. Use the arrow keys to highlight a menu option, then Space to select or deselect that menu item. When finished, press Enter to save the selection and move onto the next screen. Before starting the process, bsdinstall will load the keymap files as show in Keymap Loading. After the keymaps have been loaded bsdinstall displays the menu shown in Keymap Selection Menu.
Use the up and down arrows to select the keymap that most closely represents the mapping of the keyboard attached to the system. Press Enter to save the selection. Pressing Esc will exit this menu and use the default keymap.
In addition, when selecting a different keymap, the user can try the keymap and ensure it is correct before proceeding as shown in Keymap Testing Menu. Type in a hostname that is unique for the network. It should be a fully-qualified hostname, such as machine3. Deciding which components to install will depend largely on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space available. The FreeBSD kernel and userland, collectively known as the base system , are always installed.
Depending on the architecture, some of these components may not appear:. The installation program does not check for adequate disk space. Select this option only if sufficient hard disk space is available. Although not required for the majority of applications, it may be required to build device drivers, kernel modules, or some applications from the Ports Collection. It is also used for developing FreeBSD itself.
The menu shown in Installing from the Network only appears when installing from a -bootonly. Since the installation files must be retrieved over a network connection, this menu indicates that the network interface must be configured first.
If this menu is shown in any step of the process remember to follow the instructions in Configuring Network Interfaces.
Manual partitioning allows advanced users to create customized partitions from menu options. Shell opens a shell prompt where advanced users can create customized partitions using command-line utilities like gpart 8 , fdisk 8 , and bsdlabel 8. This section describes what to consider when laying out the disk partitions.
It then demonstrates how to use the different partitioning methods. When laying out file systems, remember that hard drives transfer data faster from the outer tracks to the inner.
This partition is used to hold mailboxes, log files, and printer spools. Mailboxes and log files can grow to unexpected sizes depending on the number of users and how long log files are kept.
At least 2 gigabytes of space is recommended for this partition. When selecting partition sizes, keep the space requirements in mind.
Running out of space in one partition while barely using another can be a hassle. As a rule of thumb, the swap partition should be about double the size of physical memory RAM. Systems with minimal RAM may perform better with more swap. Configuring too little swap can lead to inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code and might create issues later if more memory is added. On larger systems with multiple SCSI disks or multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers, it is recommended that swap be configured on each drive, up to four drives.
The swap partitions should be approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space across disks.
Large swap sizes are fine, even if swap is not used much. It might be easier to recover from a runaway program before being forced to reboot. By properly partitioning a system, fragmentation introduced in the smaller write heavy partitions will not bleed over into the mostly read partitions. When this method is selected, a menu will display the available disk s. If multiple disks are connected, choose the one where FreeBSD is to be installed.
Once the disk is selected, the next menu prompts to install to either the entire disk or to create a partition using free space. If Entire Disk is chosen, a general partition layout filling the whole disk is automatically created. Selecting Partition creates a partition layout from the unused space on the disk. After Entire Disk is chosen bsdinstall displays a dialog indicating that the disk will be erased.
The next menu shows a list with the partition schemes types. GPT is usually the most appropriate choice for amd64 computers. The other partition schemes are generally used for uncommon or older computers. More information is available in Partitioning Schemes. After the partition layout has been created, review it to ensure it meets the needs of the installation.
Selecting Revert will reset the partitions to their original values and pressing Auto will recreate the automatic FreeBSD partitions. Partitions can also be manually created, modified, or deleted.
When the partitioning is correct, select Finish to continue with the installation. Once the disks are configured, the next menu provides the last chance to make changes before the selected drives are formatted.
If changes need to be made, select Back to return to the main partitioning menu. Select Commit to start the installation process. To continue with the installation process go to Fetching Distribution Files.
Highlight the installation drive ada0 in this example and select Create to display a menu of available partition schemes:. After the partitioning scheme has been selected and created, select Create again to create the partitions. The Tab key is used to move the cursor between fields. Refer to gpart 8 for descriptions of the available GPT partition types.
The Size may be entered with common abbreviations: K for kilobytes, M for megabytes, or G for gigabytes. Proper sector alignment provides the best performance, and making partition sizes even multiples of 4K bytes helps to ensure alignment on drives with either byte or 4K-byte sectors.
Generally, using partition sizes that are even multiples of 1M or 1G is the easiest way to make sure every partition starts at an even multiple of 4K.
There is one exception: the freebsd-boot partition should be no larger than K due to current boot code limitations. A Mountpoint is needed if the partition will contain a file system. The Label is a name by which the partition will be known. Drive names or numbers can change if the drive is connected to a different controller or port, but the partition label does not change. Use a unique label on every partition to avoid conflicts from identical labels.
For instance, use labroot or rootfslab for the UFS root partition on the computer named lab. Partition sizes shown are typical for a 20G target disk. Labels shown here are prefixed with ex for "example", but readers should use other unique label values as described above. After the custom partitions have been created, select Finish to continue with the installation and go to Fetching Distribution Files. This partitioning mode only works with whole disks and will erase the contents of the entire disk.
The main ZFS configuration menu offers a number of options to control the creation of the pool.
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